Atrocity Crimes, Atrocity Laws and Justice in Africa

List of Abbreviations xi

1 Atrocities Crimes and Atrocity Laws 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Atrocity Crimes and Atrocity Laws 3
1.3 Genocide 7
1.4 Crimes against Humanity 14
1.5 War Crimes 26

2 Prosecutions: National Trials 37
2.1 Dealing with Atrocities 37
2.2 Criminal Prosecutions 37
2.3 A Duty to Prosecute? 43
2.4 National Trials 50
2.4.1 National Trials: Nigeria 51
2.4.2 National Trials: Equatorial Guinea 53
2.4.3 National Trials: Mali 59
2.4.4 National Trials: Ethiopia 60
2.4.5 National Trials: Rwanda 76
2.4.5.1 Rwanda’s Gacaca Courts and Trials 93

3 Prosecutions: International and Hybrid Trials 105
3.1 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) 105
3.1.1 Jurisdiction: Territorial and Temporal 111
3.1.2 Jurisdiction: Subject-Matter and Other Jurisdictional Issues 113
3.1.3 Working of the Tribunal 118
3.1.4 Contributions of the ICTR 120
3.1.5 Relationship with the Rwandan Criminal Justice Process 128
3.2 Special Court for Sierra Leone 131
3.2.1 Background 131
3.2.2 Jurisdiction: Territorial and Temporal 138
3.2.3 Subject-Matter Jurisdiction 140
3.2.4 Personal Jurisdiction and Criminal Responsibility 143
3.2.5 Trials before the Special Court 147
3.2.6 Assessing the Work of the SCSL 167
3.3 Extraordinary African Chambers within the Judicial System of Senegal 189
3.3.1 Background 189
3.3.2 EAC: Composition, Powers and Jurisdiction 199
3.3.3 Habré’s Prosecution 202
3.3.4 EAC: A Model for the Future? 204
3.4 Avenues of Justice: Other/Emerging Tribunals 206
3.4.1 Special Criminal Court (SCC) – Central African Republic 206

4 Transnational Accountability: Extraditions, Prosecutions and Quasi-Criminal Proceedings 217
4.1 Extraditions and the Rwanda Genocide 217
4.1.1 Responses to Rwanda’s Requests for Extradition 224
4.2 Third Country Prosecutions 244
4.2.1 Switzerland 244
4.2.2 Belgium 248
4.2.3 The Netherlands 260
4.2.4 Germany 266
4.2.5 France 270
4.2.6 Spain 278
4.2.7 Finland, Norway and Sweden 288
4.2.8 Canada 295
4.2.9 The United States of America 303
4.3 Transnational Accountability: Outsourcing Justice? 319

5 The International Criminal Court 321
5.1 Jurisdiction and Admissibility; Applicable Laws, General Principles of Criminal Law 321
5.2 Atrocity Crimes in Africa and the ICC 327
5.2.1 Situations and Referrals 327
5.2.1.1 African State-Party Referrals 328
5.2.1.2 United Nations Security Council Referrals 331
5.2.1.3 Other Investigations: Post-Election Violence; Article 12(3) Declaration 334
5.2.2 Cases: Convictions, Acquittals 338
5.2.3 Cases: Between a Rock and a Mountain – Mixed Record 347
5.3 ICC and the Politics of Justice for Atrocity Crimes 352
5.4 Moving Forward: The Malabo Protocol 359
5.5 Afterword 363

Table of Cases 365
Table of National Legislation 407
Table of Treaties and Other International Instruments 423
References 435
Index 479