Invisible bars

Chapter 1: Introduction
1 Research topic 1
2 Dearth of empirical data 2
3 Criminal records’ rising popularity 5
4 Punishment upon punishment? 7
5 Research framework 8
6 Summary 11

Chapter 2: The crime-employment relationship
1 Introduction 13
2 The effect of crime on work 13
3 The longstanding faith in work 17
3.1 Not just any job will do 17
3.2 High-risk individuals 19
3.3 Emerging adulthood 19
4 Summary and what’s next 20

Chapter 3: Legal framework
1 Introduction 23
2 Defining the criminal record 23
3 Storage and confidentiality 25
3.1 Privacy considerations 25
3.2 Storage periods 26
4 Criminal record-based employment restrictions 27
4.1 The certificate screening 27
4.2 Mandatory restrictions 28
4.3 Discretionary restrictions 29
5 Collateral consequences 31
5.1 Types and variations 31
5.2 Definitions 32
5.3 Justifications and limitations 32
6 Justifications and limitations of the Dutch system 34
6.1 Aims 34
6.2 Decision-making framework 36
7 Summary 39

Chapter 4: Theoretical framework
1 Introduction 41
2 Macro-level 42
2.1 Fuzzy law and jazzy structures 42
2.2 Security assemblages 43
2.3 Managing risk 44
2.4 Symbolic policies 47
2.5 Stigma vis-à-vis prevention 48
3 Meso-level 49
3.1 Responsibilisation 50
3.2 Managing risky groups 50
3.3 De-labelling rituals 53
3.4 Labelling without de-labelling 55
4 Micro-level 56
4.1 Labelling processes 57
4.2 Levels of stigma and coping strategies 58
4.3 Agency and narratives of desistance 59
4.4 Signalling desistance 61
4.5 Policy timing 62
5 Summary 63

Chapter 5: Research methods
1 A qualitative approach 65
2 Choosing respondents 67
2.1 Selection issues 67
2.2 Introducing the respondents 69
3 Collecting data 71
3.1 Primary data 71
3.2 Secondary data 75
4 Fieldwork in progress 77
4.1 Negotiating access 77
4.2 Trust 78
4.3 Informed consent 80
4.4 Letting go 80
5 Data quality 81

Chapter 6: Invisible obstacles
1 Introduction 83
2 Criminal histories 83
3 Definition of a criminal record 85
4 Obstacles to employment 87
5 Obstacles to education 92
6 No obstacles? 95
6.1 Don’t ask, don’t tell 95
6.2 Filling up the résumé gap 97
6.3 Pro-active disclosure 97
7 Certificate required (by law) 101
8 Conclusion 103

Chapter 7: Stigma
1 Introduction 107
2 Perceived stigma 107
3 The ‘ex-con’ label 110
3.1 A weighty and sticky stigma 110
3.2 A ‘bad name’ 112
4 Responses from officials 115
4.1 Placed on a ‘most notorious’ list 115
4.2 Police interference 118
5 Stigma’s origin 119
6 Emotional responses 121
7 Conclusion 124

Chapter 8: Self-exclusion and job prospects
1 Introduction 127
2 Self-exclusion 128
2.1 No certificate, no chance 128
2.2 Losing prospects 130
2.3 Taking the honourable way out 131
2.4 A strong self-selection effect 134
2.5 Self-exclusion in sum 135
3 Secondary deviance? 136
4 Job prospects 141
4.1 Not doing what they love most 142
4.2 Expecting marginal jobs 144
5 Conclusion 148

Chapter 9: Criminal record screening in a risk society
1 A macro-level perspective 151
2 Security assemblages and risk-governance 152
3 Prevention: from incapacitation to deterrence 157
4 The instrument’s effectiveness 160
4.1 Symbolic measures? 160
4.2 Safer businesses but no safer society 160
4.3 Signalling desistance 163
5 Justifications and limitations 165
5.1 The offence-occupation connection 165
5.2 Serious risk of serious harm? 165
5.3 Individualised decisions 167
5.4 Judicial review 168
6 Conclusion 169

Chapter 10: Agents of rehabilitation
1 Rehabilitation as two-way process 171
2 Experts’ key role 172
3 Responsibilisation 174
4 Managing risky groups 179
4.1 Declining role of experts 179
4.2 Objectified risk assessment 182
5 Leniency for youthful sins? 183
5.1 Short expiry periods 183
5.2 Dropouts and too negative expectations 184
6 Active rehabilitation 186
7 Conclusion 188

Chapter 11: Conclusion
1 Invisible bars 191
2 Consequences of a criminal record 192
2.1 Being labelled 192
2.2 Collateral consequences 193
3 Stigma of a criminal record 194
3.1 Unanticipated stigma 194
3.2 ‘Doing time’ 195
3.3 Anticipated stigma 196
3.4 Self-exclusion 196
4 Justifications and limitations 197
4.1 (In)eligible for a certificate 197
4.2 Judicial review 198
5 One million and beyond 199
5.1 Managing risky groups 199
5.2 A very slight effect 200
6 Towards incentivised rehabilitation 201
Summary 203
Samenvatting 209
References 223

Appendix 1: Short introduction to the respondents 235
Appendix 2: Topic list 243
Appendix 3: Interviews with professionals and/or parents 245
Appendix 4: Codebook used for coding the interviews with the young adults 247
Curriculum vitae 251